GCSE Psychology
Learning
Learning is
relatively permanent change in behaviour that happens because of
experiences. Theories of learning come
from the Behaviourist approach in Psychology.
This approach was founded by John Watson:
“Give me a dozen healthy
infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in. I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and
train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer,
artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief”
This approach studies behaviour by looking at how people respond to a
stimulus in the environment. The two
main theories of learning that you need to know about are:
·
Classical
conditioning – Pavlov
·
Operant
conditioning – Thorndike and Skinner
Classical
conditioning
This involves
learning by associating one stimulus with another to cause a response. This was demonstrated by Pavlov.
Key study – Pavlov’s
dogs
Aim
|
Pavlov was observing
digestion in dogs – he discovered classical conditioning during this process
|
Method
|
Dogs will salivate (their
mouths will water) when they are presented with food.
After observing that the
dogs associated a neutral stimulus with food, Pavlov decided to ring a bell
every time he presented the dog with food.
|
Results
|
After several pairings of
the food and bell, the dogs associated the bell with food and would salivate
when they heard the bell – even if there was no food.
|
Conclusion
|
Pavlov concluded that we
can learn a response by associating one stimulus with another. When a natural response is shown to a
neutral stimulus – classical conditioning has taken place.
|
Evaluation
|
Pavlov’s study was a lab
experiment so there is high control of variables and results are reliable
(they have been found on repeated occasions.
However, this study was
conducted with dogs and so the results may not always apply to humans.
|
Stage 1
The food
(unconditioned stimulus) causes the natural response of salivation
(unconditioned response).
Stage 2
The food
(unconditioned stimulus) is then paired with the bell (conditioned stimulus)
causing the natural response of salivation (unconditioned response).
NB The response is still natural because
the food is still present
Stage 3
The bell
(conditioned stimulus) is presented without the food, causing salivation (conditioned
response). Learning through classical
conditioning has now taken place.
Key study – Watson
and Rayner (1920)
Aim
|
To investigate if a phobia
could be conditioned
|
Method
|
A participant known as
Little Albert was used (11months old).
Albert liked to play with a rat.
Watson and Rayner then made a very loud noise behind him that made him
jump.
|
Results
|
Albert associated the fear
produced by the loud noise with the rat.
He then became afraid of the rat.
|
Conclusion
|
As Albert was not initially
afraid of the rat, Watson and Rayner had shown how a phobia could be learned.
|
Evaluation
|
This was lab experiment
with controlled variables so it reliably showed how behaviour can be learned.
The study used a human
participant rather than animals.
However, the sample only
included one participant so is unrepresentative.
The study can also be
criticised for being unethical – Albert was not protected from harm.
|
Task:
Write out the 3 stages of
classical conditioning for the Little Albert study. Identify the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned
response, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
|
Concepts in
classical conditioning
Extinction – If the conditioned stimulus (e.g. the
bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. the
food) then the response of salivation will eventually disappear.
Spontaneous recovery – If a response has previously been
learned, even when extinction occurs, it is possible that the conditioned
response will reappear in the future.
Generalisation – this happens when we associate similar
neutral stimuli with the conditioned response e.g. Little Albert was afraid of
rats but then generalised this fear response to other small white things such
as a white rabbit.
Discrimination – it is also possible that discrimination
will occur. Pavlov noticed that if the
same bell was always used in his classical conditioning experiment that the
dogs would only salivate to this bell.
Thorndike’s law
of effect
Thorndike
discovered the ‘law of effect’ when researching with cats. He placed cats in a cage that they would need
to escape from to get food. When in the
cage, the cat will knock the latch accidentally whilst moving. This enables the cat to escape and get the
food. When the cat is returned to the
cage, it will knock the latch quicker each time. This is called the ‘law of effect’ – when our
behaviour changes because of the consequences it brings.
Operant conditioning
– learning through consequences
Key study –
Skinner (1938)
Aim
|
To test if rats could learn
behaviour through the consequences of their actions.
|
Method
|
Experiment 1:
Rats were placed inside a
box with 2 levers.
One lever would release
food when pressed, the other would give the rat an electric shock.
Experiment 2:
Rats were placed in a box
were the floor was electrified.
The electricity would be
turned off if the rat pressed the lever
The
law of effect means that the rats should accidentally knock the levers when in
the box. The experiment was testing if
the rat would learn when it should and shouldn’t press the lever.
|
Results
|
Experiment 1:
The rat would repeatedly
press the lever that gave it food but avoid pressing the one that gave it a
shock.
Experiment 2:
The rat would repeatedly
press the lever in order to turn off the electric shock
|
Conclusion
|
The rats in this experiment
learned through operant conditioning.
In experiment 1, the
behaviour was learned through positive reinforcement and punishment.
In experiment 2, the
behaviour was learned through negative reinforcement
|
Evaluation
|
Learning through operant
conditioning can be reliably demonstrated in different animals. This happens in controlled situations when
the animal associates the behaviour with the consequence.
The technique of operant
conditioning can be used effectively to manage the behaviour of children in
schools.
However, the original
studies were done on animals and so can be criticised for applying the results
to humans.
|
Principles of
operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement – strengthens behaviour because consequence
is pleasant.
Negative reinforcement – strengthens behaviour because the
consequence removes something unpleasant.
Punishment – weakens behaviour because the consequence
is unpleasant.
The following links are to clips of learning techniques used in the TV show 'The big bang theory'
Big bang theory - classical conditioning
Big bang theory - operant conditioning
Big bang theory - operant conditioning
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